Introduction
The latest development in cosmology especially the finding that the universe is not only expanding but also accelerating brings back Einstein cosmological constant.
To explain the accelerating universe dark energy is assumed to repel the galaxies and cause the acceleration of the universe. The dark energy is based on developments in quantum mechanics that find huge quantities of energy in vacuum. The dark energy and dark matter that explains the rotation curves of galaxies is found to be 96% of the universe while the regular baryonic matter that the stars and plants are build of is only 4%. However there is no experiment done on earth or conclusive evidence that proves such dark matter or dark energy truly exists. This lack of prove is also true for the Big Bang Theory. There is no experiment to show that vacuum can spontaneously explode creating high energy and mass.
The source of such unintuitive theories, to explain cosmological observation, emerges from our misunderstanding of an every day process that is taken for granted and is never questioned. This is our understanding or rather misunderstanding of the energy source of the sun and other stars. There is a historical theory that tries to explain the sun heat based on gravitational energy. According to this theory the sun was created from solar nebula.
When all the atoms free fall to the center of the nebula their speed was converted into heat. Similar theory was proposed in the nineteen century by Lord Kelvin and said that the sun heat is from gravitational energy especially by meteorites falling into the sun.
The current day nuclear theory says that the sun is a nuclear fusion reactor and the heat emerges from fusion of hydrogen atoms to helium. The fused helium is lighter then the hydrogen so the sun converts the mass surplus into energy. Still there are some difficulties in this model. In every galaxy there are constantly new born stars. Some of them the blue super giants are 50 times more massive then the sun and they burn hydrogen much faster then the sun. This limits their life expectancy to only about ten million years. If such massive stars are born constantly, and they burn hydrogen so fast, the hydrogen is burning very fast, so where all the hydrogen is coming from. The interstellar medium does not contain so much hydrogen. The interstellar hydrogen is coming from stars inside the galaxy in stellar wind, and in supernovae.
The source of the universe mass and energy was a mystery and lead to the creation of the Big Bang theory. The Big Bang theory try to explain that by stating that all the matter of the universe including the hydrogen fuel was created at the time of the Big Bang.
This article will show that the true mass and energy source of the universe is the galaxy.
Many facts that will be presented here show that the source of the sun heat is changing magnetic fields or induction. The magnetic fields are coming from the galactic center; they propagate through the galactic disk and heat all the stars in the disk. The changing magnetic fields create by induction electric currents in the sun plasma. The electric currents heat the sun plasma and make the sun shine. Fusion of hydrogen in the sun is a by product of the heat created by the magnetic fields. At the sun core the immense heat created by the induction currents increase the particle speed and kinetic energy. As the particles collide their high kinetic energy is converted to mass by creating new particles according to Einstein equation E=MC2. The sun is not converting mass into energy but converting energy into mass.
Many of the observed phenomena on the sun are magnetic so it is reasonable to think that the sun is heated by magnetic induction.
This stars mass creation can explain where all the mass in the universe came from and why the universe is expanding and accelerating. It also can explain how the heavy elements are created in the universe. It is believed that many heavy elements are created in supernovae; this is because the fusion of heavy elements consumes energy and not produces energy as hydrogen does. Since the energy of the stars is coming from magnetic fields and not from fusion then the nucleosynthesis of heavy elements occur in red giants.
If the stars produce mass and energy then we can say that the galaxies produce mass and energy. The galaxies are the universe machines to create mass and energy.
If the sun is heated from magnetic fields from the center of the galaxy, where the energy of the galaxy is coming from? The magnetic fields create mass in the stars, and when this mass is ejected into space as solar wind, it starts to free fall to the center of the galaxy. The gravitational potential energy of the free falling dust and gas is collected by accretion disks of black holes at the galactic center. This gravitational potential energy is much higher then the energy used to create the mass. The accretion disks combined with the dynamo effect create the magnetic fields at the galactic center that produce more mass at the stars, and so forth.
If a galaxy is getting bigger and heavier all the time at some point it will spawn a new galaxy. The continuous addition of mass to the galaxy increases the mass of the spiral arms of the galaxy, and increase the arm length and its distance from the galactic center. The stellar wind ejected by the stars at the remote arm begin to collect locally at the arm itself until the arm is so heavy it detach from the main galaxy and became a satellite galaxy. Many of the pictures taken of colliding galaxies or interacting galaxies are actually instances of one galaxy spawning another. The spawning of new galaxies, lead to the expansion and acceleration of the universe.
Rotation curve
The rotation speed of stars in the galactic disk around the galactic center should obey Kepler third law. It is possible to explain the flat rotation curve based on magnetic fields in the galaxy.
I will start first by depicting a well known experiment. The magnet levitation over a superconductor or the Meissner effect causes a magnet to float in the air when placed over a superconductor. The magnetic field of the magnet induces electro-motive force and currents in the superconductor according to Faraday’s law. Those currents according to Lenz’s law create magnetic fields in the superconductor that oppose the magnet magnetic fields and therefore repel it to make it float and oppose gravity.The hot plasma in the sun and other stars has very low electric resistance.
The resistance of the plasma is much lower then that of a metal and is very close to that of a superconductor. However its resistant is not zero and electric current inside the plasma will produce heat. The sun interior is not completely homogonous and there are sections of plasma that have different electric conductivity.
In additional to the property of a superconductor the sun has the property of a magnet. The sun magnetic filed has similarities to the earth magnetic field. The sun has a dipole magnetic field, and it is similar to that of a bar magnet.
One unique property of Superconductors is that the magnetic fields inside them are very close to zero. However the star plasma has higher then zero conductivity and magnetic fields pass through the plasma to produce heat. Not only that the star high magnetic permeability concentrate the magnetic fields from space to absorb more energy.
Superconductor and magnet model of the stars
Knowing that a star is composed of plasma with low resistance and has a magnetic field of a magnetic dipole, suggest a model of the sun and stars. The star according to this model has the combined properties of a superconductor and a magnet. The stars will therefore behave similarly to the magnet and superconductor in the Meissner effect. A star will oppose the movement of nearby star. When, for instance a first star move toward a second star, the first star magnetic field will induce currents in the second star. According to Lenz’s law those currents will produce magnetic fields in the second star that will oppose the magnetic fields and movement of the first star. The resistant to movement will occur whenever a star move relative to another.
The repulsion and resistance to movement can explain why there are no collisions between main sequence stars like the sun. Though, there are hundred billion stars in the galaxy the main sequence stars never collide. Other stars like neutron stars and white dwarf can collide because they are not composed of plasma and do not have the property of superconductor. The neutron stars could be imagined only as a magnet. Therefore neutron star will repel main sequence stars like the sun. However when two neutron stars come close together they cannot repel each other because there is no superconductor involve. Not only their gravity pulls them together but their magnetic fields align and add pulling force. The north pole of one neutron star come close and attracts the south pole of the second neutron star. Observations of sudden gamma ray bursts in the universe are known to occur from neutron stars massive collisions. Also white dwarfs are prone to collide. Whit dwarfs are lacking both plasma and magnetic fields. Some of the supernovae explosions are connected with white dwarfs. Since neutron stars and white dwarfs can easily approach a star, many binary stars (for instance Sirius) include white dwarfs or neutron star. One way to look at it is to divide the stars into two categories. One is like the white dwarfs and is affected only by gravitational fields and general relativity. The Second is effected by both the magnetic fields and the gravitational fields.
The galaxies similar to the stars inside them could be depicted also as a combination of magnet and superconductor. Seeing the galaxy as magnet and superconductor combination can easily explain the repulsion between galaxies, leading to the expansion and acceleration of the universe. This model can also imply that collisions between galaxies are rare. The rarity of collision between main sequence stars is a clear indication to the rarity of collision between galaxies. Most of the interacting galaxies observed are actually a creation of one galaxy from another or in other worlds spawning of a smaller satellite galaxy from a larger galaxy.
Magnetic eddy circuitry
The galactic center creates changing magnetic fields that are sent to the galactic disk to induce current and heat in the stars. When changing magnetic fields pass through a large lump of iron or copper eddy currents are created and heat the metal. Those eddies are usually chaotic in nature. When we speak of the galactic disk we cannot speak of eddy currents because the space between the stars is not conducting. However the magnetic fields in the galactic disk could create eddies of magnetic fields and magnetic circuitry. Keeping in mind that the stars are different in size and type and the distance between them is not constant we can imagine that the magnetic fields are dispersed in very complex patterns. We can therefore predict that the galactic center transmits energy to the far sections of the galactic disk not by far reaching magnetic fields but through magnetic eddies. Such magnetic eddy circuitry can encompass millions of stars.
The Ulysses probe was send above the sun poles and find strong magnetic fields at high altitude over the poles. The high altitude and strength of those magnetic fields is indication that the sun is part of large magnetic circuitry that cross the sun and encompass many stars.
Effect on Earth and the solar planets
The solar planets have heat or energy surplus. They are hotter then what they suppose to be from the sun radiation. The heat surplus of the solar planets and earth could be explained by changing magnetic fields from the galactic center. The earth heat surplus is explained by the heat emitted by nuclear fission of heavy elements in earth. However the amount of heavy elements at the earth interior is unknown. It could be that nuclear heating can only produce few percent of the heat of the earth interior and the rest is from heat produced by magnetic fields from the galactic center. The high permeability of the iron at the earth interior helps to concentrate the magnetic fields and produce more heat. Strong evidence to the heating of earth by magnetic fields is the movement of the tectonic plates. The movement of the tectonic plates cannot be explained clearly by the convection model. The earth tectonic plates movement is a Magneto Hydrodynamics phenomena (MHD) caused by magnetic fields from the galactic center. The strong winds at the outer solar planets are also Magneto Hydrodynamics phenomena caused by magnetic fields from the galactic center.
Magnetic fields will change an elliptical trajectory of a star, planet or moon to a circular trajectory. When for instance a moon with elliptical trajectory that its core is electrically conductive and it circles a planet that has significant magnetic field, there will be induced currents and electro-motive force that according to Lenz’s law will resist any change of the distance between the moon and the planet. If the moon will increase its distance from the planets according to Lenz’s law it will be attracted more strongly to the planet, if it will get closer to the planet it will be repelled by the planet. This way the magnetic forces will change its elliptical trajectory to a circular trajectory and in the process will convert part of the kinetic energy of the moon to heat.
Solar Cycle
The solar cycle’s activity is monitored from about the year 1750 by counting the number of sunspots. The solar cycle repeat every 11 years during which the sunspots number reaches a maximum. The occurrence of sunspots is accompanied with strong magnetic fields at the sun surface.
The sun is a magnetic dipole just like earth but the sun dipole polarity is changing with the solar cycle and has different magnetic polarity every 11 years.
According to the current solar model it is believed mistakably that the solar cycle and the changing of the magnetic polarity is induced internally by the sun itself. However this is incorrect. The source of the sun solar cycle and the changing of the magnetic polarity are induced by magnetic fields originated at the galactic center. The mechanism by which the galactic center delivers power and energy to the sun and other stars is based on changing magnetic fields. The solar cycle and the changing magnetic polarity in the sun is manifestation of the galactic center magnetic fields power transmission. The galactic center apply changing magnetic field to the sun that are strong enough to change the sun polarity every 11 years. Those magnetic fields induce electric currents in the sun plasma that heat the sun.
The solar cycle is created from the galactic center magnetic fields. The sun here shown in yellow circle is stationary and the galactic magnetic fields represented as magnets are crossing the sun by moving to the left. The magnetic fields depicted here as magnets are actually coming far below and above the sun.
The interaction between the galactic center and the sun could be compared to alternating current transformer. In such a comparison the galactic center would be the primary winding the sun would be the secondary winding and the changing magnetic field of the solar cycle is the magnetic flux in the transformer core. Notice that the solar cycle magnetic field as monitored since 1750 has sinusoidal amplitude that is similar to the sinusoidal magnetic flux in a transformer core.
Another simple experiment can be conducted by placing two bolts or screws on a thin plastic board keeping a small distance between them. When you position a bar magnet beneath the board, near the screws, they will get magnetize and attract each other. Still another experiment is the known experiment where an iron dust is place on a board and a bar magnet is placed beneath. If you will watch closely you will see that the dust grain actually attracts each other until they form small dense veins of iron, in the direction of the magnetic field. The veins are created by the attraction of the dust particle to each other.
The sun energy balance
The sun is heated by changing magnetic fields from the galactic center. The sun high magnetic permeability helps to concentrate the magnetic flux from the galactic center and maximize the absorption of energy from the galactic center magnetic fields. The changing magnetic fields induce electro-motive force and electric currents in the sun. Those currents pass through the sun plasma and heat it according to I2R. The heat energy increases the particles kinetic energy and velocity at the sun core. The high velocity of the particle leads to high impact collision that creates new particle and new mass. This is a conversion of energy into mass according to E=MC2. The kinetic energy of the particle at the sun core is converted to mass when the kinetic energy in the relative velocities of the colliding particles is higher then the rest mass of the newly created particles. Since the heat energy at the sun core is converted to mass the heat energy is decreasing and there is a cooling effect that limits the temperature in the sun core below a certain level.
The conversion of energy to mass at the sun core produces the building blocks of matter – electrons, protons and neutrons. The sun and other stars cores produce the light elements in the universe for instance Hydrogen, deuterium, tritium, helium and lithium and are the main source of light elements in the universe. The sun core fuses the building blocks of matter electron, proton and neutron into elements like helium in nuclear fusion. The sun is 21% helium so considerable amount of hydrogen is fused. The fusion reaction utilizes the presence of hydrogen and extreme heat to create helium or alpha particles. Since the mass of the fused helium is lighter then the mass of the four neutrons and protons there is a conversion of mass to energy. In other words part of the mass created by the magnetic fields induction heating is converted back by the fusion to energy. The energy produced by the fusion is lower then the original energy from the galactic center magnetic fields. Also the mass that the fusion reaction converts to energy is smaller then the original mass created from the magnetic fields. The energy that is produced by the fusion is absorbed by the sun and is used again to create new particle and mass. The fusion reaction is limited by the sun core temperature that is control by the cooling effect applied from creation of new particles and mass.
Neutrino emission from the sun
For three decades there was a neutrino paradox related to the sun. The sun emitted only third of the neutrinos that where expected from the standard solar model based on the sun fusion. However the paradox was solved lately by experiments done at SNO neutrino detector. The neutrinos once believed to be massless like photons but know are known that the neutrinos have mass. The existence of mass of the neutrino is based on the fact that when neutrinos pass in space there are oscillations between the three flavors of the neutrinos. The SNO neutrino detector confirmed that and settled the long neutrino paradox. Assuming that the SNO findings are correct and there is no contamination that influenced the data, there is seemingly a conflict between the theory presented here and the SNO findings. If the sun is heated by the galactic center magnetic fields and the fusion is only a by product and limited in scope, then the neutrino emission supposes to be much smaller then in the full scale fusion of the standard solar model. The solution to this conflict is that the nucleosynthesis of the building blocks of matter electron, proton and neutron emits neutrinos.
For instance you can see the emission of neutrino in the collision of electron and positron that creates a quark:
e+e- à W+W- à q qbar μ v
The collision creates quark pair, muon and neutrino.
The emission of neutrinos from the sun is the sum of the neutrinos from the small scale fusion reaction, and mainly from creation of new particles and mass.
Spawning of a small galaxy by a larger galaxy
The galaxies produce constantly new mass and energy. Since the galaxy mass increase more dust and gas is falling to the galactic center and the magnetic fields get stronger to deliver more energy to the stars. As the magnetic fields in the stars are getting stronger the mass of the stars increase. Because the magnetic fields in the galactic disk are getting stronger extra energy is available and new stars are born. During the NASA Apollo missions, samples of the moon rock where analyzed, to find that the sun temperature increased by 10% during the last billion years. This means that the sun mass increased by 10%. This increase is enormous.
The sun mass increase indicates that many stars in the galaxy have mass increase and therefore the galaxy has mass increase. The constant mass increase leads to spawning of new galaxies. As a galaxy is getting more massive and heavy the arm of the galaxy are also getting heavier. The stars in the arm are getting more massive and new stars are born. As the arm is getting heavier it is also getting more distant from the galactic center. At some point the dust and gas produced by the arm is not pulled by the far galactic center but by the closer galactic arm. The falling dust and gas to the galactic arm create a massive center that start to produce changing magnetic fields. This process spawns a new satellite galaxy that has its own energy cycle. As the satellite galaxy is getting bigger its magnetic fields are getting stronger and repel the main galaxy. The spawning of new galaxies is observed everywhere in the universe. Most of the observed colliding or interacting galaxies are actually spawning of new galaxy. The arm of the galaxy is very elongated and far from the galactic center. The dust and gas at the newly created galaxy is falling locally to the satellite galaxy and not to the main galaxy. There are three factors that influence the spawning of new galaxy:
- The distance of the local arm from galactic center. The more distance the arm is, the easier it is for the new galaxy to be spawned.
- The mass of the local galactic arm. The more massive the arm is, the easier it is for the new galaxy to be spawned.
- The mass and gravity attraction of the main galaxy galactic center. The more massive the main galactic center is, the harder it is for the new galaxy to be spawned.
The spawning of new galaxies creates new black holes at the main galaxy galactic arm. The new black hole is the center of the new galaxy and operates its energy cycle.
Elliptical galaxies could also spawn a new galaxy. The mechanism is different from that of the spiral galaxies. Before spawning the elliptical galaxy will get elongated and then gradually will have appearance similar to that of eyeglasses or the number 8.
Everywhere in the universe there are examples of massive galaxies with nearby smaller satellite galaxies. Those smaller galaxies were spawned from the massive galaxy and are offspring of the massive galaxy. The Milky Way is an example of a massive galaxy with nearby satellite galaxies. The satellite galaxies where spawned from the Milky Way. There are 14 satellites galaxies of the Milky Way like the Small Magellanic Clouds and The Large Magellanic Clouds. A look at the Local group also reveals that Andromeda includes many satellite galaxies. The M32 is a satellite galaxy of Andromeda M31 and was spawned by it. In the arms of Andromeda, there is still evidence of the M32 spawning.
The sun luminosity could be influenced by other factors like its position in the galactic arm. The sun could be in the outskirts of the galactic arm and during the last billion years reached the galactic arm backbone or more central position in the galactic arm. The magnetic fields in the galactic arm backbone are stronger then the magnetic fields at the outskirts of the galactic arm. Therefore the luminosity of the sun could be influenced by its position in the galactic arm.
The sun luminosity depends also on the spawning of new galaxies. After the spawning of new galaxy the amount of dust and gas falling to the galactic center is smaller because there are fewer stars in the galaxy. The smaller amount of dust produce weaker magnetic fields at the galactic center and this leads to decrease in the energy the stars at the galactic disk absorb. This will decrease the luminosity of the stars.
We can estimate the time it takes to spawn a new satellite galaxy. This estimation is based on assumptions and not on precise data.
A small satellite galaxy contains about 5 billion stars. The number of stars in the Milky Way is about 200 billion star. We assume that the Milky Way galaxy is adding to its mass 0.5% in billion years (1/20 of the sun mass increase). We can find that every 5 billion years the Milky Way is spawning a new galaxy. For this calculation we also need to assume that the Milky Way is staying roughly in the same mass after many spawns. It is possible that the galaxy mass is not staying the same but increase after many spawns.
If we observe many galaxies in the sky we can notice that there is no standard size for the galaxies. So part of the galaxy mass increase is permanently kept within the galaxy to constantly increase its size and the other part is lost to spawning of new galaxies.
If for instance only 50% of the galaxy mass increase is going for spawning of new galaxies the period between spawning of galaxies is 10 billion years.
A galaxy like the Milky Way will spawn a new galaxy every roughly about 10 billion years. Until a new galaxy is spawned the mass of the galaxy is increasing exponentially and new mass added to the galaxy increase the mass creation rate of the galaxy. After the new satellite galaxy is spawned the mass of the main galaxy is sharply reduced as the new galaxy mass is removed from the main galaxy.
After the new galaxy is spawned the amount of dust and gas falling to the main galactic center is reduced. This will reduce the strength of the magnetic fields from the galactic center and provide less energy to the stars.
The link between the sun luminosity and its position in the galactic arm could be understood from the rotation of the galactic arm. The galactic arm is spinning with constant angular velocity in all distances from the galactic center. If the angular velocity was not constant the galactic arms would scatter and lose their packed structure. The galactic arms keep their solid structure because of two reasons. First the stars in the galactic arms are magnetiz
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